Genetic drivers of tumor microenvironment and immunotherapy resistance in non-small cell lung cancer: the role of KEAP1, SMARCA4, and PTEN mutations

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a crucial role in shaping the response to immunotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). While immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have revolutionized NSCLC treatment, a significant proportion of patients exhibit primary or acquired resistance. Emerging evidence highlights the role of specific genetic alterations, Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (KEAP1), SWI/SNF-related, matrix-associated, actin-dependent regulator of chromatin subfamily A member 4 (SMARCA4), and phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) mutations, in driving immune evasion and limiting the effectiveness of ICIs. KEAP1 mutations, through constitutive nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 activation, promote oxidative stress adaptation and metabolic reprogramming, creating an immune-excluded TME that reduces T-cell infiltration. SMARCA4 loss disrupts chromatin remodeling and epigenetic regulation, impairing antigen presentation and fostering a poorly immunogenic tumor phenotype. PTEN inactivation, by dysregulating the PI3K/AKT pathway, enhances tumor proliferation while contributing to an immunosuppressive cytokine milieu. The presence of these mutations is associated with poor outcomes, independent of tumor mutational burden or programmed death-ligand 1 expression, and their co-occurrence, particularly with KRAS and STK11, further compounds resistance. In this review, we explore the biological impact of KEAP1, SMARCA4, and PTEN mutations on the immune landscape of NSCLC, their implications for immunotherapy resistance, and potential strategies to overcome these barriers. As precision oncology advances, identifying therapeutic vulnerabilities in these genetically defined subgroups will be critical to improving patient outcomes and expanding the efficacy of immunotherapy in NSCLC.